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Accent Fallacy

When the meaning of a word, sentence, or entire idea is interpreted differently by changing where the accent falls.

accentus, emphasis fallacy, fallacy of accent, fallacy of prosody, misleading accent

Accident Fallacy

When an attempt is made to apply a general rule to all situations when clearly there are exceptions to the rule. Simplistic rules or laws rarely take into consideration legitimate exceptions, and to ignore these exceptions is to bypass reason to preserve the illusion of a perfect law. People like simplicity and would often rather keep simplicity at the cost of rationality.

a dicto simpliciter ad dictum secundum quid, destroying the exception, dicto secundum quid ad dictum simpliciter, dicto simpliciter, converse accident, reverse accident, fallacy of the general rule, sweeping generalization

Ad Fidentia

Attacking the person’s self-confidence in place of the argument or the evidence.

argumentum ad fidentia, against self-confidence

Ad Hoc Rescue

Very often we desperately want to be right and hold on to certain beliefs, despite any evidence presented to the contrary. As a result, we begin to make up excuses as to why our belief could still be true, and is still true, despite the fact that we have no real evidence for what we are making up.

making stuff up, MSU fallacy

Ad Hominem (Abusive)

Attacking the person making the argument, rather than the argument itself, when the attack on the person is completely irrelevant to the argument the person is making.

argumentum ad hominem, personal abuse, personal attacks, abusive fallacy, appeal to the person, damning the source, name calling, refutation by caricature, against the person, against the man

Ad Hominem (Circumstantial)

Suggesting that the person who is making the argument is biased or predisposed to take a particular stance, and therefore, the argument is necessarily invalid.

argumentum ad hominem, appeal to motive, appeal to personal interest, argument from motives, conflict of interest, faulty motives, naïve cynicism, questioning motives, vested interest

Ad Hominem (Guilt by Association)

When the source is viewed negatively because of its association with another person or group who is already viewed negatively.

argumentum ad hominem, association fallacy, bad company fallacy, company that you keep fallacy, they’re not like us fallacy, transfer fallacy

Ad Hominem (Tu quoque)

Claiming the argument is flawed by pointing out that the one making the argument is not acting consistently with the claims of the argument.

argumentum ad hominem tu quoque,  appeal to hypocrisy, you too fallacy, hypocrisy, personal inconsistency

Affirmative Conclusion from a Negative Premise

The conclusion of a standard form categorical syllogism is affirmative, but at least one of the premises is negative. Any valid forms of categorical syllogisms that assert a negative premise must have a negative conclusion.

illicit negative, drawing a negative conclusion from affirmative premises, fallacy of negative premises

Affirming a Disjunct

Making the false assumption that when presented with an either/or possibility, that if one of the options is true that the other one must be false. This is when the “or” is not specifically defined as being exclusive.

the fallacy of the alternative disjunct, false exclusionary disjunct, affirming one disjunct, the fallacy of the alternative syllogism, asserting an alternative, improper disjunctive syllogism, fallacy of the disjunctive syllogism

Affirming the Consequent

An error in formal logic where if the consequent is said to be true, the antecedent is said to be true, as a result.

converse error, fallacy of the consequent, asserting the consequent, affirmation of the consequent

Alleged Certainty

Asserting a conclusion without evidence or premises, through a statement that makes the conclusion appear certain when, in fact, it is not.

assuming the conclusion

Alphabet Soup

The deliberate and excessive use of acronyms and abbreviations to appear more knowledgeable in the subject or confuse others.

Alternative Advance

When one is presented with just two choices, both of which are essentially the same, just worded differently. This technique is often used in sales. Fallacious reasoning would be committed by the person accepting the options as the only options, which would most likely be on a subconscious level since virtually anyone—if they thought about it—would recognize other options exist.

lose-lose situation

Amazing Familiarity

The argument contains information that seems impossible to have obtained—like it came from an omniscient author. This kind of writing/storytelling is characteristic of fiction, so when it is used in an argument it should cast doubt.

argument from omniscience, "how the hell can you possibly know that?"

Ambiguity Fallacy

When an unclear phrase with multiple definitions is used within the argument; therefore, does not support the conclusion. Some will say single words count for the ambiguity fallacy, which is really a specific form of a fallacy known as equivocation.

ambiguous assertion, amphiboly, amphibology, semantical ambiguity, vagueness

Anonymous Authority

When an unspecified source is used as evidence for the claim. This is commonly indicated by phrases such as “They say that...”, “It has been said...”, “I heard that...”, “Studies show...”, or generalized groups such as, “scientists say...”

appeal to anonymous authority

Anthropomorphism

The attributing of human characteristics and purposes to inanimate objects, animals, plants, or other natural phenomena, or to gods. This becomes a logical fallacy when used within the context of an argument.

personification

Appeal to Accomplishment

When the argument being made is sheltered from criticism based on the level of accomplishment of the one making the argument. A form of this fallacy also occurs when arguments are evaluated on the accomplishments, or success, of the person making the argument, rather than on the merits of the argument itself.

appeal to success

Appeal to Anger

When the emotions of anger, hatred, or rage are substituted for evidence in an argument.

appeal to hatred, loathing, appeal to outrage, etc.

Appeal to Authority

Insisting that a claim is true simply because a valid authority or expert on the issue said it was true, without any other supporting evidence offered. Also see the appeal to false authority.

argument from authority, ipse dixit, argumentum ad verecundiam

Appeal to Celebrity

Accepting a claim of a celebrity based on his or her celebrity status, not on the strength of the argument.

Appeal to Closure

Accepting evidence on the basis of wanting closure—or to be done with the issue. While the desire for closure is a real psychological phenomenon that does have an effect on the well-being of individuals, using "closure" as a reason for accepting evidence that would otherwise not be accepted, is fallacious.

appeal to justice

Appeal to Coincidence

Concluding that a result is due to chance when the evidence strongly suggests otherwise. The appeal to luck variation uses luck in place of coincidence or chance.

appeal to luck, appeal to bad luck, appeal to good luck

Appeal to Common Belief

When the claim that most or many people in general or of a particular group accept a belief as true is presented as evidence for the claim. Accepting another person’s belief, or many people’s beliefs, without demanding evidence as to why that person accepts the belief, is lazy thinking and a dangerous way to accept information.

argumentum ad populum, appeal to accepted belief, appeal to democracy, appeal to widespread belief, appeal to the masses, appeal to belief, appeal to the majority, argument by consensus, consensus fallacy, authority of the many, bandwagon fallacy, appeal to the number, argumentum ad numerum, argumentum consensus gentium, appeal to the mob, appeal to the gallery, consensus gentium, mob appeal, social conformance, value of community, vox populi

Appeal to Common Folk

In place of evidence, attempting to establish a connection to the audience based on being a “regular person” just like each of them. Then suggesting that your proposition is something that all common folk believe or should accept.

appeal to the common man

Appeal to Common Sense

Asserting that your conclusion or facts are just “common sense” when, in fact, they are not.We must argue as to why we believe something is common sense if there is any doubt that the belief is not common, rather than just asserting that it is.

Appeal to Complexity

Concluding that just because you don’t understand the argument, the argument is not true, flawed, or improbable. This is a specific form of the argument from ignorance.

Appeal to Consequences

Concluding that an idea or proposition is true or false because the consequences of it being true or false are desirable or undesirable. The fallacy lies in the fact that the desirability is not related to the truth value of the idea or proposition. This comes in two forms: the positive and negative.

argumentum ad consequentiam, appeal to consequences of a belief, argument to the consequences, argument from [the] consequences

Appeal to Definition

Using a dictionary’s limited definition of a term as evidence that term cannot have another meaning, expanded meaning, or even conflicting meaning.

appeal to the dictionary, victory by definition

Appeal to Desperation

Arguing that your conclusion, solution, or proposition is right based on the fact that something must be done, and your solution is "something."

Appeal to Emotion

This is the general category of many fallacies that use emotion in place of reason in order to attempt to win the argument. It is a type of manipulation used in place of valid logic.

appeal to pathos, argument by vehemence, playing on emotions, emotional appeal, for the children

Appeal to Equality

An assertion is deemed true or false based on an assumed pretense of equality, where what exactly is "equal" is not made clear, and not supported by the argument.

appeal to egalitarianism, appeal to equity

Appeal to Extremes

Erroneously attempting to make a reasonable argument into an absurd one, by taking the argument to the extremes.

Appeal to Faith

This is an abandonment of reason in an argument and a call to faith, usually when reason clearly leads to disproving the conclusion of an argument. It is the assertion that one must have (the right kind of) faith in order to understand the argument.

Appeal to False Authority

Using an alleged authority as evidence in your argument when the authority is not really an authority on the facts relevant to the argument.

appeal to doubtful authority, appeal to dubious authority, appeal to improper authority, appeal to inappropriate authority, appeal to irrelevant authority, appeal to misplaced authority, appeal to unqualified authority, argument from false authority

Appeal to Fear

When fear, not based on evidence or reason, is being used as the primary motivator to get others to accept an idea, proposition, or conclusion.

argumentum in terrorem, argumentum ad metum, argument from adverse consequences, scare tactics

Appeal to Flattery

When an attempt is made to win support for an argument, not by the strength of the argument, but by using flattery on those whom you want to accept your argument. This fallacy is often the cause of people getting tricked into doing something they don’t really want to do.

apple polishing, wheel greasing, brown nosing, appeal to pride / argumentum ad superbiam, appeal to vanity

Appeal to Force

When force, coercion, or even a threat of force is used in place of a reason in an attempt to justify a conclusion.

argumentum ad baculum, argument to the cudgel, appeal to the stick

Appeal to Heaven

Asserting the conclusion must be accepted because it is the “will of God” or “the will of the gods”. In the mind of those committing the fallacy, and those allowing to pass as a valid reason, the will of God is not only knowable, but the person making the argument knows it, and no other reason is necessary.

deus vult, gott mit uns, manifest destiny, special covenant

Appeal to Intuition

Evaluating an argument based on "intuition" or "gut feeling" that is unable to be articulated, rather than evaluating the argument using reason.

appeal to the gut

Appeal to Loyalty

When one is either implicitly or explicitly encouraged to consider loyalty when evaluating the argument when the truth of the argument is independent of loyalty. Alternatively, one considers loyalty in concluding that the argument is true, false, or not...

appeal to patriotism

Appeal to Nature

When used as a fallacy, the belief or suggestion that “natural” is better than “unnatural” based on its naturalness. Many people adopt this as a default belief. It is the belief that is what is natural must be good (or any other positive, evaluative judgment) and that which is unnatural must be bad (or any other negative, evaluative judgment).

Argumentum ad Naturam

Appeal to Normality

Using social norms to determine what is good or bad. It is the idea that normality is the standard of goodness. This is fallacious because social norms are not the same as norms found in nature or norms that are synonymous with the ideal function of a created system. The conclusion, "therefore, it is good" is often unspoken, but clearly implied.

Appeal to Novelty

Claiming that something that is new or modern is superior to the status quo, based exclusively on its newness.

argumentum ad novitatem, appeal to the new, ad novitam [sometimes spelled as]

Appeal to Pity

The attempt to distract from the truth of the conclusion by the use of pity.

ad misericordiam, appeal to sympathy, appeal to victimhood

Appeal to Popularity

Using the popularity of a premise or proposition as evidence for its truthfulness. This is a fallacy which is very difficult to spot because our “common sense” tells us that if something is popular, it must be good/true/valid, but this is not so, especially in a society where clever marketing, social and political weight, and money can buy popularity.

argumentum ad numeram, appeal to common belief

Appeal to Possibility

When a conclusion is assumed not because it is probably true, but because it is possible that it is true, no matter how improbable.

Appeal to Ridicule

Presenting the argument in such a way that makes the argument look ridiculous, usually by misrepresenting the argument or the use of exaggeration.

reductio ad ridiculum, appeal to mockery, the horse laugh

Appeal to Self-evident Truth

Making the claim that something is "self-evident" when it is not self-evident in place of arguing a claim with reason. In everyday terms, something is "self-evident" when understanding what it means immediately results in knowing that it is true, such as 2+2=4.

Appeal to Spite

Substituting spite (petty ill will or hatred with the disposition to irritate, annoy, or thwart) for evidence in an argument, or as a reason to support or reject a claim.

argumentum ad odium

Appeal to Stupidity

Attempting to get the audience to devalue reason and intellectual discourse, or devaluing reason and intellectual discourse based on the rhetoric of an arguer.

Appeal to Tradition

Using historical preferences of the people (tradition), either in general or as specific as the historical preferences of a single individual, as evidence that the historical preference is correct. Traditions are often passed from generation to generation with no other explanation besides, “this is the way it has always been done”—which is not a reason, it is an absence of a reason.

argumentum ad antiquitatem, appeal to common practice, appeal to antiquity, appeal to traditional wisdom, proof from tradition, appeal to past practice, traditional wisdom

Appeal to Trust

The belief that if a source is considered trustworthy or untrustworthy, then any information from that source must be true or false, respectively. This is problematic because each argument, claim, or proposition should be evaluated on its own merits.

appeal to distrust [opposite], appeal to trustworthiness

Appeal to the Law

When following the law is assumed to be the morally correct thing to do, without justification, or when breaking the law is assumed to be the morally wrong thing to do, without justification.

Appeal to the Moon

Using the argument, “If we can put a man on the moon, we could...” as evidence for the argument.

argumentum ad lunam

Argument by Emotive Language

Substituting facts and evidence with words that stir up emotion, with the attempt to manipulate others into accepting the truth of the argument.

loaded words, loaded language, euphemisms

Argument by Fast Talking

When fast talking is seen as intelligence and/or confidence in the truth of one’s argument; therefore, seen as evidence of the truth of the argument itself. The fallacy is also committed by the person doing the talking when he or she is deliberately attempting not to allow the audience enough time to process the argument; therefore, either accepting it or at least not rejecting it.

Argument by Gibberish

When incomprehensible jargon or plain incoherent gibberish is used to give the appearance of a strong argument, in place of evidence or valid reasons to accept the argument.

bafflement, argument by [prestigious] jargon

Argument by Personal Charm

When an argument is made stronger by the personal characteristics of the person making the argument, often referred to as “charm”.

sex appeal [form of], flamboyance, eloquence

Argument by Pigheadedness

This is a refusal to accept a well-proven argument for one of many reasons related to stubbornness.

argument by stubbornness, invincible ignorance fallacy

Argument by Repetition

Repeating an argument or a premise over and over again in place of better supporting evidence.

argument from nagging, proof by assertion

Argument by Selective Reading

When a series of arguments or claims is made and the opponent acts as if the weakest argument was the best one made. This is a form of cherry picking and very similar to the selective attention fallacy.

Argument from Age

The misconception that previous generations had superior wisdom to modern man, thus conclusions that rely on this wisdom are seen accepted as true or more true than they actually are.

wisdom of the ancients

Argument from Fallacy

Concluding that the truth value of an argument is false based on the fact that the argument contains a fallacy.

argumentum ad logicam, disproof by fallacy, argument to logic, fallacy fallacy, fallacist's fallacy, bad reasons fallacy [form of]

Argument from False Authority

When a person making a claim is presented as an expert who should be trusted when his or her expertise is not in the area being discussed.

Argument from Hearsay

Presenting the testimony of a source that is not an eyewitness to the event in question. It has been conclusively demonstrated that with each passing of information, via analog transmission, the message content changes. Each small change can and often does lead to many more significant changes, as in the butterfly effect in chaos theory.

the telephone game, Chinese whispers, anecdotal evidence, anecdotal fallacy/Volvo fallacy [form of]

Argument from Ignorance

The assumption of a conclusion or fact based primarily on lack of evidence to the contrary. Usually best described by, “absence of evidence is not evidence of absence.”

ad ignorantiam, appeal to ignorance, appeal to mystery [form of], black swan fallacy [form of], toupee fallacy [form of]

Argument from Incredulity

Concluding that because you can't or refuse to believe something, it must not be true, improbable, or the argument must be flawed.

argument from personal astonishment, argument from personal incredulity, personal incredulity

Argument from Silence

Drawing a conclusion based on the silence of the opponent, when the opponent is refusing to give evidence for any reason.

argumentum e silentio

Argument of the Beard

When one argues that no useful distinction can be made between two extremes, just because there is no definable moment or point on the spectrum where the two extremes meet. The name comes from the heap paradox in philosophy, using a man’s beard as an example. At what point does a man go from clean-shaven to having a beard?

fallacy of the beard, heap fallacy, heap paradox fallacy, bald man fallacy, continuum fallacy, line drawing fallacy, sorites fallacy

Argument to Moderation

Asserting that given any two positions, there exists a compromise between them that must be correct.

argumentum ad temperantiam, middle ground, false compromise, gray fallacy, golden mean fallacy, fallacy of the mean, splitting the difference

Argument to the Purse

Concluding that the truth value of the argument is true or false based on the financial status of the author of the argument.

argumentum ad crumenam, appeal to poverty or argumentum ad lazarum, appeal to wealth, appeal to money

Arguments

When we hear the word “argument,” we tend to think of an adversarial confrontational between two or more people, with bickering, defensiveness, and increased negative emotions.

Avoiding the Issue

When an arguer responds to an argument by not addressing the points of the argument. Unlike the strawman fallacy, avoiding the issue does not create an unrelated argument to divert attention, it simply avoids the argument.

avoiding the question [form of], missing the point, straying off the subject, digressing, distraction [form of]

Base Rate Fallacy

Ignoring statistical information in favor of using irrelevant information, that one incorrectly believes to be relevant, to make a judgment. This usually stems from the irrational belief that statistics don’t apply in a situation, for one reason or another when, in fact, they do.

neglecting base rates, base rate neglect, prosecutor's fallacy [form of]

Begging the Question

Any form of argument where the conclusion is assumed in one of the premises. Many people use the phrase “begging the question” incorrectly when they use it to mean, “prompts one to ask the question”. That is NOT the correct usage. Begging the question is a form of circular reasoning.

petitio principii, assuming the initial point, assuming the answer, chicken and the egg argument, circulus in probando, circular reasoning [form of], vicious circle

Biased Sample Fallacy

Drawing a conclusion about a population based on a sample that is biased, or chosen in order to make it appear the population on average is different than it actually is.

biased statistics, loaded sample, prejudiced statistics, prejudiced sample, loaded statistics, biased induction, biased generalization, biased generalizing, unrepresentative sample, unrepresentative generalization

Blind Authority Fallacy

Asserting that a proposition is true solely on the authority making the claim. It is often the case that those who blindly follow an authority ignore any counter-evidence to the authority’s claim, no matter how strong. The authority could be anyone or anything, including parents, a coach, a boss, a military leader, a document, or a god.

blind obedience, the "team player" appeal, Nuremberg defense, divine authority [form of], appeal to/argument from blind authority

Broken Window Fallacy

The illusion that destruction and money spent in recovery from destruction, is a net-benefit to society. A broader application of this fallacy is the general tendency to overlook opportunity costs, or that which is unseen, either in a financial sense or other.

glazier's fallacy

Bulverism

This is a combination of circular reasoning and the genetic fallacy. It is the assumption and assertion that an argument is flawed or false because of their suspected motives, social identity, or other characteristic associated with their identity.

Causal Reductionism

Assuming a single cause or reason when there were actually multiple causes or reasons. Logical Form:

complex cause, fallacy of the single cause, causal oversimplification, reduction fallacy

Cherry Picking

When only select evidence is presented in order to persuade the audience to accept a position, and evidence that would go against the position is withheld. The stronger the withheld evidence, the more fallacious the argument. Logical Form:

ignoring inconvenient data, suppressed evidence, fallacy of incomplete evidence, argument by selective observation, argument by half-truth, card stacking, fallacy of exclusion, ignoring the counter evidence, one-sided assessment, slanting, one-sidedness

Circular Definition

A circular definition is defining a term by using the term in the definition. Ironically, that definition is partly guilty by my use of the term “definition” in the definition. Okay, I am using definition way too much. Damn! I just did it again.

Circular Reasoning

A type of reasoning in which the proposition is supported by the premises, which is supported by the proposition, creating a circle in reasoning where no useful information is being shared. This fallacy is often quite humorous.

circulus in demonstrando, paradoxical thinking, circular argument, circular cause and consequence, reasoning in a circle

Commutation of Conditionals

Switching the antecedent and the consequent in a logical argument.

the fallacy of the consequent, converting a conditional

Complex Question Fallacy

A question that has a presupposition built in, which implies something but protects the one asking the question from accusations of false claims. It is a form of misleading discourse, and it is a fallacy when the audience does not detect the assumed information implicit in the question, and accepts it as a fact.

plurium interrogationum, many questions fallacy, fallacy of presupposition, loaded question, trick question, false question

Conflicting Conditions

When the argument is self-contradictory and cannot possibly be true.

contradictio in adjecto, a self-contradiction, self-refuting idea

Confusing Currently Unexplained with Unexplainable

Making the assumption that what cannot currently be explained is, therefore, unexplainable (impossible to explain). This is a problem because we cannot know the future and what conditions might arise that offer an explanation. It is also important to note that we cannot assume the currently unexplained is explainable.

Confusing an Explanation with an Excuse

Treating an explanation of a fact as if it were a justification of the fact, a valid reason for the fact, or evidence for the fact.

Conjunction Fallacy

The conjunction fallacy occurs when one estimates a conjunctive statement (this and that) to be more probable than at least one of its component statements. It is the assumption that more specific conditions are more probable than general ones.  This fallacy usually stems from thinking the choices are alternatives, rather than members of the same set.  The fallacy is further exacerbated by priming the audience with information leading them to choose the subset as the more probable option.

conjunction effect

Conspiracy Theory

Explaining that your claim cannot be proven or verified because the truth is being hidden and/or evidence destroyed by a group of two or more people. When that reason is challenged as not being true or accurate, the challenge is often presented as just another attempt to cover up the truth, and presented as further evidence that the original claim is true.

canceling hypothesis, canceling hypotheses, cover-ups

Contextomy

Removing a passage from its surrounding matter in such a way as to distort its intended meaning.

fallacy of quoting out of context, quoting out of context

Deceptive Sharing

haring an article, post, or meme on social media with the intent to influence public perception to perceive a statistically rare event as a common event. The cognitive bias behind this fallacy is the availability heuristic that causes us to have a skewed perception of reality based on specific examples that easily come to mind.

Definist Fallacy

Defining a term in such a way that makes one’s position much easier to defend.

persuasive definition fallacy, redefinition

Denying a Conjunct

A formal fallacy in which the first premise states that at least one of the two conjuncts (antecedent and consequent) is false and concludes that the other conjunct must be true.

Denying the Antecedent

It is a fallacy in formal logic where in a standard if/then premise, the antecedent (what comes after the “if”) is made not true, then it is concluded that the consequent (what comes after the “then”) is not true.

inverse error, inverse fallacy

Denying the Correlative

Introducing alternatives when, in fact, there are none. This could happen when you have two mutually exclusive statements (correlative conjunction) presented as choices, and instead of picking one or the other, introduce a third -- usually as a distraction from having to choose between the two alternatives presented.

denying the correlative conjunction

Disjunction Fallacy

Similar to the conjunction fallacy, the disjunction fallacy occurs when one estimates a disjunctive statement (this or that) to be less probable than at least one of its component statements.

Distinction Without a Difference

The assertion that a position is different from another position based on the language when, in fact, both positions are the same -- at least in practice or practical terms.

Uncomfortable Ideas: Facts don't care about feelings. Science isn't concerned about sensibilities. And reality couldn't care less about rage.

This is a book about uncomfortable ideas—the reasons we avoid them, the reasons we shouldn’t, and discussion of dozens of examples that might infuriate you, offend you, or at least make you uncomfortable.

Many of our ideas about the world are based more on feelings than facts, sensibilities than science, and rage than reality. We gravitate toward ideas that make us feel comfortable in areas such as religion, politics, philosophy, social justice, love and sex, humanity, and morality. We avoid ideas that make us feel uncomfortable. This avoidance is a largely unconscious process that affects our judgment and gets in the way of our ability to reach rational and reasonable conclusions. By understanding how our mind works in this area, we can start embracing uncomfortable ideas and be better informed, be more understanding of others, and make better decisions in all areas of life.

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